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Monday, September 26, 2011
Cassino Italy January-May 1944
Cassino also includes the brand new Infantry Aces escalation campaign system, which is an escalation campaign system that focuses on infantry companies. With Infantry Aces you will earn medals and promotions as you command a small infantry company and lead them to glory. Whether you are new to infantry forces or a seasoned veteran, Infantry Aces will open up a whole new world of tactics for you to explore. You will have to make full use of all support weapons at your disposal, including mortars, machine-guns and light anti-tank guns, in order to achieve victory on the battlefields of Cassino. In this campaign, you will begin the game with a small force. As you fight your way through, your command will expand to include new platoons. Your battles will determine the fate of the campaign. Will the Germans hold against the determined Allied assaults, or will the Allies break through and open the road to Rome?
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Famous Aircraft of the World - P-47 Thunderbolt
Exactly where the Thunderbolt's story begins is rather difficult to establish, being linked as it is to such a number of projects originating from Seversky's stable. One could, perhaps, take the date of April 1939 as a good starting point, when Major Alexander Seversky lost majority control of his company with the arrival of Wallace Kellet as President of the company. During the subsequent reorganisation, even Seversky's name was removed, and the company renamed 'Republic Aviation Corporation'. Work in hand at that time included production of the P-35, the EP-106 (P-35 export version for Sweden) and development of the AP-4. The latter (designated XP-41) had originated from a United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) competition for a new fighter initiated the previous January. It featured a turbo-supercharger installed in the central fuselage and was powered by an R-1830-31 engine. Since emphasis at that time was being placed on low-level performance, the XP-40 emerged as the competition winner. However, an order for 13 aircraft under the designation YP-43 was placed on 12 May 1939 with Republic, mainly thanks to the excellent performance that the AP-4 had displayed during its trials.
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German Military Vehicle Rarities (3)
In accordance to the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 the post WWI German Army was forbidden to own any armoured vehicles. Those still in existence were to be handed over to the victorious allies or to be scrapped. On the same measure the German Police had been granted 150 armoured cars for use on roads only. In 1920, 50 such vehicles were handed over from the army into service with the different)' counties. To be able to fill the requirement for the missing 100 from 1921 the German Ministry of the Interior developed another type of Polizei-Panzerwagen on the specifications of all-wheel drive, wheels of identical size, two machine-gun turrets, 11-ton in total weight and prepared for a crew of nine. The armour for this new type was heavier than with the previous army versions and had a dead spot of no more then one metre, permitting excellent urban-area combat capabilities. The new armoured car type was to be built until 1928 by three manufacturers with a total output of 89 delivered to the police units. By 1935 altogether 125 armoured cars are recorded to be in active police service, by 1938 this figure had dropped to 40. In Spring 1939 all others had been scrapped. In 1945, confirmed information revealed that at least one vehicle, a Daimler DZVR, has been found badly damaged in the Reichskanzlei in Berlin.
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Germany's Lightning War 1939-1943
When Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor in January 1933, he promised the German people that he would reverse the humiliations imposed on the nation by the Versailles Treaty and return Germany to a dominant position in Europe. In direct contravention of the terms of the treaty, Hitler instigated a vast expansion of the armed forces and started the process of rearmament, concentrating on the production of aggressive instruments of war: tanks, bomber aircraft and U-boats. By 1936, the growing strength of Germany's armed forces emboldened Hitler to adopt an increasingly belligerent foreign policy. Despite the presence of the League of Nations, Hitler was helped by the refusal or inability of other major powers to put a brake on his territorial ambitions.The Soviet Union and the United States were not members of the League, and both nations adopted a policy of non-intervention in world affairs. Britain and France were the two major powers within the League, but - weakened by their efforts in World War I - neither country had the will to act decisively against Hitler.
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Military Times 2011-10
Then, on the order, by platoon, the volleys crashed out along each battalions line. 'Down dropped the whole of the French front rank,' records Fortescue, 'blue coats, red coats, and white, before the storm. Nineteen officers and 600 men of the French and Swiss Guards fell at the first discharge; Regiment Courtin was crushed out of existence; Regiment Aubeterre, striving hard to stem the tide, was swept aside by a single imperious volley which laid half of its men on the ground.' And it continued. The first French line was shattered, and the British pushed forwards. But as fast as de Saxe hurled the regiments of his second line and his reserve into the redcoats' path, they too were shivered to fragments by volley-fire they could not match. Ligonier's attack had reached 300 yards into the French position before it was brought to a halt by a combination of stiffening resistance in front, relentless cannon fire on the flanks, and a succession of furious charges by the French cavalry.
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Wing Masters No.83
Dans ce pays, le MiG-17 a notamment été utilisé dans les unités de formation et d'entraînement des pilotes où il a reçu au fil des années quelques schémas de camouflage très intéressants. Après avoir revendu mon MiG-17 de chez Dragon, j'ai été tout de suite très motivé pour monter celui d'AZ Model qui est une maquette beaucoup plus détaillée et plus simple avec, notamment, un fuselage classiquement composé de doux moitiés au lieu de quatre pièces sur la maquette Dragon. J'ai toujours eu envie de réaliser un MiG-17 polonais avec une peinture très abîmée comme on peut bien le constater sur de nombreuses photos. Quelle chance pour moi qui aime bien les décorations très sales... AZ Models a sorti une boîte avec une belle décoration d'un MIG-17F polonais camouflé et qui est actuellement exposé dans un musée en Pologne ce qui m'a permis de trouver plusieurs photos de l'appareil.
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Friday, September 23, 2011
German Military Vehicle Rarities (2)
Welcome to the second issue in our series on vehicles of the German military history of 1914 - 1945. Again we have compiled interesting and rare photographs which hitherto have not been published and collected material on vehicles that did up to now not receive their deserved coverage. It is our intention to grant the military-vehicle enthusiast access to these new photographs and new historical facts, but also to put forward questions. More than half a century has passed, still, much new information - both in photographical as well as in written form - can be gained. We hope to have raised or enlarged your interest by reading our publications on the subject. If our readers are in posession of further material to close gaps in the historical or technical perspective, we are looking forward to hearing from you at the publisher's address as given on page 01 of this publication.
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Hobbyworld Issue 131
El buldócer o bulldozer (del inglés: niveladora) es un tipo de excavadora que se utiliza principalmente para el movimiento de tierras, de excavación y empuje de otras máquinas. Aunque la cuchilla permite un movimiento vertical de elevación, con esta máquina no es posible cargar materiales sobre camiones o tolvas, por lo que el movimiento de tierras lo realiza por arrastre. La historia de los primeros bulldozers comienza con adaptaciones a partir de tractores. Con el fin de realizar movimientos de tierra y otros materiales, en 1929 fue fabricado el primer bulldozer. Éste no tenía cabina, con lo que el conductor iba desprotegido; todos los modelos modernos ya incluyen una cabina para seguridad del conductor.
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Prinz Eugen Neuauflage 2003
The heavy cruiser PRINZ EUGEN continues to receive great interest within the community of card modelers. This can't be explained only by it's destiny during and after WWII. The mystifying elegance and outlines continue to intrigue model builders around the world. The history of this ship is comprehensively covered in the referenced literature. Therefore we would like to draw the reader's attention to these books. Following the German notes you will find a list of selected books about the topic. Seven years after the first publication of a Prinz-Eugen-card model by CFM, the small, but highly motivated, publishing company is issuing a second edition of this model totally re-designed by Dieter Pongratz. The shortcomings of the first edition have been completely eliminated. The cfm-card model published in 1996 sold out quite quickly. The publisher and its associated designers received a lot of comments from experienced builders around the world. Encouraged by this and new historical details in terms of plans and pictures, a completely new design was started in 2000. Using Thomas Pleiner's former design as a basis, Dieter Pongratz has designed a masterpiece in card modeling which corrects the shortcomings of the previous design.
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The Soviet Reach for the Moon
Even before the launch of the first artificial Earth satellite by the Soviet Union shocked the world, the fundamental foundation for manned space flight, with its ultimate ob jective of leaving the confines of the Earth for the Moon and more distant celestial bodies, had been laid. In 1903 Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935), the father of Russian cosmonautics, published his landmark treatise on the technical requirements for space flight, Investigation of Cosmic Spaces by Reactive Devices. His pioneering work was supplemented by Tsander (1887-1933) and Kondratyuk (1897-1942). A scant half century later, Russian scientists and engineers began turning Tsiolkovsky's dream into reality By the time Yuri Gagarin marked a milestone of human evolution by becoming the first man in space, the seemingly impossible task of landing men on the Moon and returning them to Earth had been reduced to a technical and engineering challenge well within the grasp of the current generation.
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Tomcats Forever
America needs the F-14. That was the message appearing on American TV screens in the autumn of 1989 as the authors assembled this pictorial celebration of the US Navy's Top Gun' fighter. The F-14 had been in production for two decades, had served with one foreign user in addition to our navy, and although accruing some age, was still one of the best air-to-air combat machines this side of the long-awaited ATF (advanced tactical fighter). Many were concerned that production of the F-14 might end prematurely, and the TV message was intended to save not only the Tomcat but its builder, Grumman. Other volumes may address the political, economic and corporate issues which underly the decision to end production early in the F-14D factory run. We are here not speak of politics but to show the Tomcat to our audience through the medium of photos. Photos aboard the carrier, photos returning from combat off the Libyan coast, and still more photos. None of these colour plates has ever been published before.
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Saturday, September 17, 2011
Friday, September 16, 2011
Air & Space Magazine 2009-03
THE APOLLO 11 COMMAND module Columbia is clearly one of the National Air and Space Museum's crown jewels. Displayed in the Milestones of Flight gallery, Columbia is surrounded by Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis, Chuck Yeager's Bell X-l, and the North American Aviation X-15. While these aircraft hang high out of reach, Columbia is at ground level, and you can inspect every detail on the heat shield from just a nose away. That's precisely what NASA engineers need to do as they plan a similar carbon-based heat shield, but one about four feet wider, for the new Orion crew exploration vehicle, which will take astronauts back to the moon. The engineers would like to handle old, proven material, and even rough some up in the lab. The heat shield on Columbia and those of all the manned Apollo craft are off limits, as these vehicles, displayed in museums around the country, are national treasures. But, as Betsy Pugel suspected, the Smithsonian doesn't throw things away. Pugel, one of the scientists on the Orion heat shield project at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland, and currently detailed to NASA Ames, doubles as a liaison between NASA and the Museum. Last spring she asked if there might be any Apollo heat shield material stored at the Paul E. Garber facility, the Museum's warehouse in Suit)and, Maryland.
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Air & Space Magazine 2009-05
IN 1971, THE U.S. AIR FORCE offered a checkout in the McDonnell F-4 to Republic F-105 drivers who had completed a 100-mission combat tour and were willing to volunteer for a second tour. I dearly loved the Thud, but with its numbers dwindling due to combat losses, its future was bleak. I checked out in the F-4 at Homestead Air Force Base in Florida and in June arrived at Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base in Thailand. The usual mission of the 13th Tactical Fighter Squadron was two-ship bombing flights under forward air control in Laos and an occasional reconnaissance escort into southern North Vietnam. By protecting the recon guys from MiGs, aircrews felt they were really doing something productive and, according to the rules of engagement, if the recce airplanes were fired at, we could drop bombs. In 1972, combat missions grew more challenging. More reconnaissance escorts were dropping bombs and more F-4s were sent on multiple-flight missions against specific North Vietnam targets. On April 15, the air tasking order for the next day called for 20 airplanes to fly MiG patrol in the Hanoi area for bombing flights taking off from other F-4 and F-105 bases. The gloves were coming off.
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Air & Space Magazine 2009-07
IN 1941, WHEN IT APPEARED that Britain's battle against Germany might fail, the U.S. Army Air Forces called for a bomber that could fly 10,000 miles with a 10,000-pound payload. Northrop responded with the XB-35 Flying Wing; Consolidated offered the XB-36 Peacemaker. In 1947, my boss, Colonel Albert "Bullet" Boyd, chief of the Army Air Forces Flight Test Division at Wright Field in Ohio, sent Glenn Edwards, Danny Forbes, and me—"los très amigos"—to the barren California wasteland known as Muroc Army Air Field, along with civilian flight test engineer Richard Smith. We shared Danny as copilot. We had all the fun of flying, and Dick Smith had all the work of reducing our collected data into readable form. I was supposed to have flown the propeller-driven version of the Flying Wing, the XB-35. But I had told Colonel Boyd that any engineer who put a propeller on the trailing edge of a wing did not deserve his diploma. The air flowing over the top of the wing has a different temperature, velocity, and dynamic pressure than the air flowing under it, so those little propeller blades had to cut through two different air masses in microseconds, and the difference caused flutter.
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Air & Space Magazine 2009-08
IT'S JUST 55 MILES from my home airport in Los Angeles to the Tehachapi gliderport where Pete Buck has his hangar, but it's usually a jarring flight through torrents of wind that tumble eastward off the mountains like whitewater. Not today. The air is perfectly still. The hundreds of huge windmills that dot the ridges are motionless, the sky is without clouds, the visibility without limit. I've pulled the rpm way back, so that the grumble of the engine, through earplugs and a headset, recedes into the distance. The airplane seems to slide along frictionlessly, like a skater coasting, hands in pockets, on a pond of infinite blue. An engineer with a youthful manner and a day job at the Lockheed Martin Skunk Works, Buck, 51, is waiting on the ramp when I taxi in. As we walk to his hangar, only our voices, and the occasional chirp of a bird, disturb the universal calm.
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Wednesday, September 14, 2011
Jane's Defence Weekly August 31, 2011
The US Army's Joint Land Attack Cruise Missile Defense Elevated Netted Sensor (JLENS) is set to begin evaluating a key element of the system after programme funding was recently boosted to speed developmental testing. Testing of a full orbit for the persistent 'over-the-horizon' sensor system is expected by the end of the year as integration of the capability's two main components is proceeding well, according to Ken Gordon, JLENS programme manager for prime contractor Raytheon. A JLENS orbit includes two tethered 74 m aerostats built by TCOM: one carrying a 360-degree surveillance radar and the other a fire control radar (FCR). From its perch 10,000 ft (3,000 m) above a battlefield, the surveillance radar detects incoming threats and then cues the FCR, which can relay targeting information to an air-defence weapon system such as Patriot. JLENS is meant to track and facilitate engagements of cruise missiles and 'air-breathing' threats, but it can also detect various aircraft, missile and surface targets. It is designed to stay aloft for up to 30 days.
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The Spycraft Manual - The Insider's Guide to Espionage Techniques
To be a professional in any occupation, one must acquire the skills and tools of the trade and in this respect the modern spy is no different. The skills taught to a would-be spy are known as 'tradecraft'. It Is a set of rules, or standard operating procedure. These are diverse, and include agent contact, surveillance, sabotage and a multiplicity of other subjects. In the past, these skills would enable the spy to covertly gather intelligence, but today he finds himself little more than a frontline soldier. Equipped with these tradecraft skills and modern technology, the spy enters the underworld of espionage and counter-terrorism. Here he must operate in a hostile environment, among people of different cultures, faiths and beliefs. It is a world most of us never see, never hear of, but it exists in a layer of society controlled by the most powerful people in government. A new enemy is at our doors - terrorism. Recruitment for the intelligence services has never been so Intense, or so needed. Every year, brave men and women volunteer to be spies, learn their tradecraft skills, and when ready they are sent on operations. Their deeds may be great, but they go unheralded, and failure often results in torture and a slow, painful death.
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Xtreme Modelling No.06
Although the allied armies of WW2 employed many types of tank destroyers, most were simple adaptations of existing tanks. The US Army's M-18 Hellcat was an exception as it was a purpose built tank destroyer from the outset, entering service in early 1943 and participating in every theatre of operations thereafter. Its modest armour protection made it vulnerable to artillery fragments and medium AT guns, but due to its high power gun and impressive road speed, it proved popular with its crews. With a top speed of close to 55 mph, it was the fastest tracked vehicle used by any army in WW2. This is my first model project produced by AFV Club, and I must say it will definitely not be my last. The level of detail is exceptional, and apart from a few minor fit problems, it builds into a beautiful replica of the actual vehicle. The Hellcat represented a first of sorts for me. After 10 years of building strictly German tanks and AFV's, this is my first attempt at an Allied vehicle and it made for an excellent change of pace. I began construction by cleaning and assembling the suspension and roadwheels, minus the tracks, as the model would later receive fruil metal tracks. The wheels and lower hull were covered with sifted sand and static grass attached with Testor's liquid cement to replicate caked on mud and dust.
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Sunday, September 11, 2011
Jane's Defence Weekly September 07, 2011
The recent clashes over checkpoints in northern Kosovo raised concerns across Europe, reminding the continent's policy makers that relations between Serbia and its former province are far from normalised. However, the way the situation played out was very different to what may have occurred a decade ago. The reaction to the recent incidents on both sides was fierce but largely diplomatic. While Kosovo declared a trade embargo on Serbia, the checkpoints were reopened in early August. The EU sent a senior official to hold talks with Belgrade and Pristina, and Serbian officers engaged in dialogue with their Kosovo Force (KFOR) counterparts along the border. The lack of a full-blown crisis highlights the extent to which the Serbian Armed Forces have evolved since the end of the Slobodan Milosevic era in 2000. Defence Minister Dragan Sutanovac. who spoke to Jane's in Belgrade in late July, insisted that a robust diplomatic response was now the default position of the Serbian government. "Right now we are faced with something which, for us, is completely inappropriate; it is something that Pristina decided to do in the dark. in the night, to change unilaterally the situation in North Kosovo." he said. "But we want to change the picture of Serbia from the 1990s, when we tried to solve all our problems with muscle."
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Xtreme Modelling Issue 14
It has come to our realization that some modellers think that the quality and the sophistication of the models and dioramas usually featured in Xtreme Modelling is "too high" and this deters them from purchasing our magazine since they prefer other publications with, let's say, more affordable projects. It is true that in Xtreme Modelling we try to show exceptional models, but that does not mean that the finished models and dioramas shown in our pages are out of the reach of the capabilities or budgets of most of our readers. And to prove this, in this issue we present a couple of articles dealing with great models made "Out Of The Box" (OOTB), that is, models assembled directly from the box, and with very few extra additions. We share the opinion of the authors of these articles that sometimes the super detailing fever goes to far, unnecessarily increasing the costs, in terms of both time and money, to finish a model (the infamous Advanced Modelling Syndrome, or AMS as it is mostly known). The best remedy: choose a good model, make it easy by building it OOTB, and have fun painting it. In a few work sessions our display cabinet will contain a nice new model. That is for sure.
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Model Magazine International 2011-09
The folks at Hobbyboss whose job it is to choose subjects for model kit production really do seem to be very perceptive. The F-84E is an iconic fighter aircraft from the early age of jets; an extremely attractive and often colourful aircraft and a stunning subject for a 1:32 model kit. And they've really done a fantastic job with it, the box is crammed with some extremely impressive mouldings. The airframe detail consists of recessed panel lines (naturally) and these are gratifyingly delicate, bordered in most cases with equally subtle, engraved flush-rivets (panel fasteners). The larger fasteners (at the wing roots, tail fin stiffener plates etc.,) are depicted with fine rings and appear well in-scale. Both fuselage and wings are treated in this restrained manner and the kit really benefits from it; an impressive exercise in the abstemious application of airframe structural detailing. The cockpit is based around a tub moulding to which are mounted a rear bulkhead, additional console units, rudder pedals and of a course a seat (a choice of two types), the latter being extremely well tackled, although you'll need to source your own harnesses for this as none are provided in the box.
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Friday, September 9, 2011
Military Illustrated Modeller 2011-09
Hawker's Sea hawk was the Royal Navy's first successful single seat jet fighter, replacing the unsatisfactory Supermarine Attacker. It showed itself to be a good ground attack aircraft and participated in the 1956 Suez Crisis. The only 1:72 scale HobbyBoss aircraft kits that I have had anything to do with up until now are those quick-build WWII single engine fighters. They are a bit 'hit and miss', quality wise, like the Mk.VB Spitfire with a canopy about 3mm wider than the fuselage and no gear doors. Some others were pretty good but still basic, usually lacking in cockpit and wheel well detail. I had read somewhere that this Seahawk kit was a quantum leap so when it turned up in my local I shelled out the readies. The price seemed very good if the quality was reasonable, but I was not expecting what I got. My favourite plastic manufacturer is MPM/ Special Hobby. They have released several versions of the Seahawk in 1:72 scale, along with Airfix many years ago. The MPM effort is all plastic but can still be built up into a good model while the Specicl Hobby kit has an excellent resin/PE cockpit and a host of under-wing stores. No need to mention the Airfix kit here. The HobbyBoss Seahawk parts breakdown is similar to MPM/Special Hobby in that the forward fuselage and wing is split horizontally while the aft fuselage and tail are split vertically. There the similarity ends.
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Military Illustrated Modeller 2011-06
Welcome fo Military Illustrated Modeller No.2, AFV Edition (to save page-space, from now on I will refer to it simply as MiM-AFV!) Echoing Brett's words last issue, I am delighted to be at the joint-helm of this new publication; 'my' AFV edition will come out six times per year, alternating monthly with the six issues of Brett's Aircraft Edition. We have invested extensively in MiM-AFV and Aircraft and the luxury of high-grade paper will really let the photos of models shine. Of course, it's not just the paper that makes the models look good - the builds have to be top-notch to start with and I feel quite privileged to have some serious modelling talent on board. Angus Creighton, Pat Johnston, Stan Spooner, Eelke Warrink and Marcel Jussen have all joined us for this first AFV edition with some really varied subject matter, and I think you'll agree that their work is inspirational. Angus brings us his amazing build of Dragon's Sd.Kfz.7/1 Flakvierling and his unique and influential style is instantly recognisable; it's great to have him back in our pages. Pat's 1:48 armour-model work needs no introduction. He has taken Tamiya's recent quarter-inch scale Jagdtiger and given it a twist by finishing it in a factory red-oxide primer, very cool. Stan is TMMI's USA Consultant Editor and he's a pretty damn good modeller too. He has built DES Kits' 1:35 resin Laffly armoured-car to an amazingly high standard and it's certainly something a little different.
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Thursday, September 8, 2011
Model Military International 2011-09
Great Britain started producing dedicated artillery tractors in the late 1930s in order to replace horse drawn artillery teams. The distinctively boxy Guy Ant 4x4 Field Artillery Tractor, also dubbed the Quad gun tractor, was the first of a prolific family of vehicles that would eventually be built in large numbers, in the UK and also in Canada. These FATs were based on both Chevrolet and Ford chassis. Quad Gun Tractors were responsible for pulling 18 pdr, 20 pdr and often the famous 25 pdr gun. The British Ordnance OF 25 pdr gun first entered service in 1940. It eventually became one of the most versatile and widely serving weapons in British inventory, remaining in international front line service until the 21st century. The most recent combat use of the 25 pdr was by Kurdish militia in northern Iraq during 2003. Along with its full sized counterparts, Tamiya's 1:35 scale Quad Tractor and 25 Pdr combination must have surely earned the accolade "classic".
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Model Military International 2011-07
The Jackal MWMIK (Mobility Weapon-Mounted Installation Kit) was originally ordered by the Ministry of Defence as an Operational Urgent Requirement for the British armed forces in both Afghanistan & Iraq but to date it has only seen service in Afghanistan. The MoD stated, the Jackal was built to meet the British Army's specific requirements for an agile, well-armed, light patrol vehicle. The Jackal was initially chosen by the MoD as it performed well in trials in comparison to the WMIK and Snatch Land Rovers, which did not have the required mobility over rough terrain. The Land Rover Wolf WMIK (Weapon-Mounted Installation Kit) had become a symbol of the British Military forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. It was orginally chosen for patrol duties instead of armoured fighting vehicles, due to the hearts and minds policy that is followed by British Forces. They have been successful to a certain extent but following a spate of incidents, particularly with lEDs there has been concern that the unarmoured nature of the Wolf exposes the crews to excessive danger. The Land Rover Snatch had been used to supplement the Wolf but whilst the Snatch gave protection against small arms fire it proved vulnerable to mines and lEDs and didn't carry the weaponry that the WMIK did. The terrain and distances in both Iraq and Afghanistan also showed the need for a vehicle with a greater performance off road and heavier armament than what was currently in use.
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The Fourth Crusade 1202-04 - The betrayal of Byzantium
If the crusades have become controversial, the Fourth Crusade always was so. Until modern times the idea of Christians and Muslims slaughtering each other in the name of religion seemed almost acceptable, but the idea of Latin Catholic Crusaders turning against fellow Christians of the Orthodox Church shocked many people, even at the time, and came to be described as 'The Great BetrayaP. It was even blamed for so undermining the Greek-speaking Byzantine state that this relic of the ancient Roman Empire succumbed to the Ottoman Turks. In reality the Fourth Crusade was not that straightforward; nor was its aftermath inevitable. The Fourth Crusade was a consequence of the deeply disappointing though gratifvingly heroic Third Crusade, which had failed to regain the Holy City of Jerusalem from Saladin. On 8 January 1198 a new pope, the hugely ambitious Innocent III, took the reins of power in Rome. In August he proclaimed a new crusade, the declared purpose of which was to liberate Jerusalem from the 'infideP by invading Egypt, the chief centre of Muslim power in the eastern Mediterranean. It was also the most important sultanate in the Ayyubid Empire founded by Saladin.
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